Practicus In The Studio: Studio Heating And Ventilation.

        The warming and ventilating of studios is a problem which has to be solved in many ways, these bring dependent upon the construction, aim, and position of the building and the means of the owner, for it is obvious that what will suffice for the small “portable” type of erection inadequate for the large, solidly-built apartment, is which the more fortunate among; us are able to work. There are, nevertheless, certain general principle which must to toasted no matter what to the aim or design and the owner of the little studio should carefully consider what to can but do with the son appropriated to the purpose before parting with it. Among these I would put evenness of temperature, cleanliness freedom from injurious fumes, and economy of fuel, the latter being likely to be more important in the future than it has been in the past.
        The position of the heating apparatus should to carefully chosen, as much depends upon it, and, above all, the error usually made by builders of dwelling houses should to avoided that of placing the stove at the end of the room opposite the door, in which position it create, a draught of cold air and only warms a limited area, giving rise to the complaint that one is frozen on one side and roasted on the other. In warming a studio it is desirable that the store or radiator should to place near the door so that the air is warmed in its passage into the room. In studies which have a glass roof and these are still in the majority - the stove should to placed under the glass, so near to the side light ea possible, as not only to this the coldest side by reason of them being only one thickness of glass as a barrier to the outside temperature, but that the warm air ascending to the roof may rout any snow which may fall upon it I have often known work to be stopped by a thick layer of snow on the glass and in attempting to remove this by mechanical means the glace may be broken, an unpleasant state of things in midwinter.
        With regard to the heating apparatus, there it a wide choice ranging from a boiler and steam or hot water pipes to a portable oil stove, and each has its advantages and drawbacks. On the whole, I have found hot pipes the most satisfactory way of heating, and there if possible, should to run the whole length of the studio close under the side light, a shelf or flat piece of wood should to placed above them, and the front should be screened with wirework (as ornamental as may to), fixed on frames which can to easily removed when the pipes require attention. This screening hides the unsightly appearance of the pipes and does not interfere with the heating; in fact, the top strip or shelf serves to distribute the warm air more evenly. If the pipes are left exposed they must to painted, and it is important that oil paint should to avoid: not only will it emit an abominable odour when it is heated, but it rapidly darkens and becomes unsightly. Although a dark colour is the better radiator of heat, I consider that on the whole paint made of finely-ground aluminium in celluloid, which is sold for die purpose to be the best coating. If any other colour than silver required matching the walls, a useful paint may to make by grinding powder colors of the desired shade in beer, stout for preference. I have not tried Government ale for this or any other purpose, bat I for that its adhesive properties would be too poor. The beer colour is used for painting the funnels of steamers which get rather hotter than the average steam or hot water pipes. It must not be thought- that such an installation is vary costly affair if the existing types as used in greenhouse are selected. They may be had in all sizes, and the makers will estimate for the complete outfit if the cubic contents in the studio in feet are given, with the temperature it is desired to obtain. It is necessary to point out that in severe weather the fire must be kept going night and day, not only that the studio may never lie allowed to become cold, but to prevent the water freezing and causing fracture of the pipes or an explosion of the boiler.
        A useful modification of this system is to have separate radiators, each of which is filled with water heated by an atmospheric gas burner. I know of several studios where they are giving every satisfaction, although a reduction of the gas pressure sometimes lowers the heat to an undesirable extent; to minimize the risk of this the supply pipe should be of ample proportions. A large pipe does not imply a large consumption of gas, but it secures an adequate supply when the pressure is low. When using this or any other system in which gas is burned in the studio, efficient ventilation must be arranged for, or the fumes will cause lassitude and even illness. For small studios one or more of the well-known siphon stoves may be wed with advantage. In these there is a large central Argand burner flanked by two metal pipes which not only serve as radiation but condense the products of combustion into liquid ions. These stoves are economical in use and have a cheerful appearance. Two would probably be sufficient for a 20 by 12 studio. Open gas fires are cheerful looking, but rather costly for continuous use; they have also the disadvantage that unless well fenced in there is danger of clothing and drapery being set on fire, a danger which is also present with open coal fires, and one not to be ignored when children are about.
        Closed stoves for coal, coke, and anthracite are very useful in the studio, but most of them necessitate either a brick chimney or an unsightly stove pipe. Of this group, those burning anthracite are the most desirable, as once started they will burn continuously for months if supplied with fuel. Thus the studio does not get cold during the night, and there is no trouble of fine laying each morning; all that has to be done is to empty the ashpan occasionally. The older type of slow combustion stove known as the " Tortoise " burns coal, coke, or cinders, and may also be kept continuously burning. Although this may seem wasteful it is really not so, for there is no necessity to make up a big fire every morning to warm the place up on a reasonable time, while the wood, paper, and labour required for lighting are saved.
        In certain circumstances oil stoves are the only possible heaters available, and if a good pattern be chosen they are not to be despised. The tall, cylindrical pattern, with a bail handle by which it ran be moved about, are very convenient, and if kept, clean, is fairly free from the odour of the oil. The salamanders, or blue flame stoves, are very effective, but they are mean looking and cannot be shown in a well-appointed studio. I have, however, used one of these in a fancy east-iron tore made for gas, and found it quite satisfactory. I have also found that one of these placed under the darkroom sink rapidly raised the room to summer temperature, the sink itself being warm, while the solutions were easily brought to normal temperature by placing the bottles near the lamp. If it be possible, when fitting hot water pipes, to run a (bend into the darkroom, it is, of course, better in every way than an independent stove.
        From heating the studio to keeping it cool is but a step, and in most people's minds keeping cool and ventilation mean the same thing. This is hardly so, for a studio can be perfectly ventilated and yet kept at a high temperature it may be filled with foul air at a low one. The essential point in ventilation is to have the outlets and inlets for air properly proportioned and placed in such positions that straight-through currents- from one to the other cannot be produced. In single-slant and other studios which approximate to an ordinary room the ventilation can be provided for by opening windows if in convenient positions, or Tobin tubes may be provided as air inlets; as a rule, the inlet should be fairly low and the outlets high. The Tobin tubes, which admit air in such a way that no draught is caused, are of the simplest construction, being, nothing more than long, flat boxes of wood or metal, say, ten inches by three, in section, and about four feet in height. They are placed flat against the wall, and at the bottom have an opening to the outer air equal in. area to their own inside sectional area, with a protective grating. The top, inside the room, is left open, so that the air on entering has a tendency to rise and becomes evenly distributed. Four such tubes are sufficient for a moderate sized studio. The outlets should be of the ordinary grating type, with mica flaps placed high in the walls, so that there is no accumulation of hot air in the roof. For very hot weather a large flap opening should be provided, as high as possible, at both ends of the studio, so as to permit of a free draught from end to end. It is necessary that the coverings should not permit light to enter above the backgrounds, and this can easily be done by fitting inside louvers after the style of a Venetian blind. This is a better arrangement than having a lifting sash or trap-door, as is frequently seen, since the current is more perfect, and there is perfect protection against rain. Of course, there must be a hinged door or shutter inside or outside the louvers. This arrangement is supplementary to the small mica flap ventilators, which are sufficient in cold weather. Small electric fans are very useful for keeping the air in motion in very hot weather, but are not available in many places. The roof of a studio should always be double on the dark side, as this prevents heat from being radiated from the outer roof, which in a north-lighted studio has the full midday sun upon it. In positions where the sun strikes upon the glass it is a good plan to have a long iron pipe, perforated with small holes, running along the entire length of the glass. This is connected with the water supply, so that the glass can be flooded with a gentle stream which quickly evaporates and reduces the inside temperature to a considerable extent. It is also very useful for keeping the glass clean. A flood of cold water is harmful, as if turned suddenly upon hot glass it is liable to make the roof leaky if putty is used for glazing, as it is in the majority of cases.
        Much may be done to give an appearance of coolness by the choice of suitable colors for the wails. Green or greenish grey looks much cooler than red or even buff, while ferns, palms, and other plants assist in producing the same impression. One of the most refreshing arrangements I have seen consisted of a passage opening from one end of the studio fitted as a rockery, with ferns and a trickle of water over the stones. Such surroundings produce a tranquil state of mind in the sitter and tend to the success of the portrait. I have also seen a side window opening on to a dingy mew, turned into a miniature rockery, with a tiny fountain .with goldfish in a lake about two feet across at the bottom. These ideas may not accord with those of the "highbrow" artists of to-day, but they please the average sitter, and that is what we all strive to do.
PRACTICUS.

Practicus In The Studio: The Surroundings Of The Studio.

Previous articles of this series, in which the aim of the writer to communicate items of a long experience in studio portraiture, have appeared weekly since the beginning of the present year. It is not thought possible to continue the series to the length of that by the name writer which ran hrough the "British Journal" some years ago, but if any reader among the younger generation of photographers, and particularly those engaged as assistants, has a particular subject which might be dealt with, his or her suggestion will be welcomed. The subjects of the previous articles of the series have been as follows: -
Studio Exposures (May 24).
Artificial Lighting (June 4).
Printing Processes for Portraiture (June 5).
Studio Accessories and Furniture (June 20).
A Talk About Lighting (June 10).
The Camera and the Lens (June 12).
Managing the Sitter (May 14).
Backgrounds (May 20).

          Some writers on lighting in the studio have treated the matter as if all studios were alike, and that a set of rules, which should ensure any desired revolt if they were followed, could be evolved. There could be no greater error, for hardly any two studios are exactly alike; in fact, so great is the difference that an operator who has created quite a reputation for artistic work in one will fail dismally in another. It has been my luck to work in many oddly constructed places, but I have hardly found one where, with a little study and perseverance, decent results could not be obtained, the principal difference being not so mach in the appearance of the negatives as in she length of exposure necessary to obtain then. This, I hope, will be of some comfort to those who have found an otherwise eligible position for a studio, but are doubtful as to its possibilities in the way of lighting.
          There are two main points to be considered, one being the orientation of tile building, or its relation to the cardinal points of the compass, and consequently to the sun, and the other the presence of outside obstructions in the shape of walls, trees, or other objects. Regarding the first, I think that too much stress has been laid upon the necessity for a northern aspect for the glass side; in fact, I have known cases where a photographer has gone to great trouble and expense to secure this or even to reject a position where it could not be obtained. For instance, where it has been a choice between securing a good working length with in eastern aspect or too short s studio for good work, the latter has been chosen, simply from fear of not being able to control the light in the former position. This idea dates back to wet-collodion days, when it was considered essential to have a large amount of open light, and has been handed down from one writer to another, although we must not forget that even in those early days Mr. Valentine Blanchard, whose artistic ability has never been questioned, proved that the finest possible work could be done all the year round in a studio facing due south. I frequently work in a studio with a full western aspect, and find no difficulty in doing so, although I must confess that I should like it muoh better if it were a northern one. The reason for this is, of course, that in the latter one can get the same effect all day without altering the blinds, while in the former modifications are necessary as the light works round.
          To make the best of a studio so situated that the sun shines upon the glass, it is necessary to be able to coyer the whole of the light either with dark or white blinds or curtains as my be needed, but when I say white blinds I do not mean pea-soup colour, which is the normal tint in many studios. These intercept so much light that they are useless as diffusers, which is their real mission. Mr. Blanchard screened his sunlit roof and side with light frames, upon which tissue paper was stretched; but I prefer my favourite white nainsook festoon curtains, as they may be easily pushed aside when not required, end are, moreover, easily washed when soiled. I have worked in a studio glazed with ground glass, but found that there was too much glare, and when white blinds were used in addition the exposures were too long. It is almost needless to say that in a sunlit studio there must be no bare glass, the white blinds being the source of light, when they act much in the same way as if a sky covered with white clouds were seen through dear glass. The simile is, perhaps, not quite good, but that is as nearly as I can put it. In such a studio the inside walls must be rather dark or flatness will result, and the area of white blind used must be no larger than is necessary. If we consider the ease with which good results can be obtained with a single enclosed arc lamp we shall see that a very large area of light is not necessary.
          The second point that of outside obstructions is a more difficult one and every individual case must be dealt with as a special problem. During the past few weeks I have had to deal with two cases in which the trouble arose from the proximity of a high wall a few feet from the side light. In the worst one the wall was higher than the studio, and about nine feet away. It was of dark brick and how the previous occupant of the studio, for whom it was built, managed I cannot imagine. His work was certainly unorthodox, and he abandoned photography for the stage. Then during an interval it was occupied as a workshop, until its excellent business position attracted another photographer who decided to take the chance. The first thing to be done was to visit the owner of the wall and to ask his permission, to have it painted white; this he gave readily enough, and the next to stipple the side light halfway up with very thin zinc white paint. The necessary dark and white blinds were fitted, and even in this dull weather the results obtained are excellent, although, of course, the exposures are not quite as rapid as they would be in a more open position.
          Another studio was even in a worse situation, being located at the bottom of a deep well-hole surrounded by lofty houses. Before it was built I went on to the leads on which it was to stand, and certainly felt some misgivings; still it was there or nowhere, and as the prospective user was a wealthy man we decided to take the risk. There was toplight, and not too much of that, but, with the help of outside silvered reflectors, lighting was quite passable, and many excellent portraits taken in it. All cases are not as bad as this, but there are often obstructions which seriously reduce the value of a studio. Once I built a studio in a garden in the winter, and it was very satisfactory, but what a difference when the leaves came on the trees again! Fortunately, most were on my own ground, and were drastically lopped, and my next-door neighbor helped, bf cutting in one or two which still troubled me. It is wonderful what you can get done if you talk nicely to people. Here, again, I found that stippling the side light was an improvement, as light which would be nearly vertical is intercepted and dispersed in all directions. If rolled plate be used in such circumstances, there is a great gain in light if the ribs be placed horizontally in the side light; every rib becomes a little cylindrical lens, and throws light into the studio.
          In the case of an immovable obstruction which is very near the proposed studio, it is advisable if possible to raise the building, so that it will overlook the obstacle. A friend who found himself in this difficulty said afterwards that it proved a blessing in disguise, for he had to provide himself with an excellent workroom upon which the glasshouse was built, and he found this much more comfortable than the cramped quarters he had proposed using, and the extra cost was not great considering the value of the accommodation provided.
          When building or adapting a studio care should be taken to avoid minor obstructions caused by portions of the building itself; for example, I have seen a single slant studio in which the slant was obtained by throwing back the top behind the general line of the building, thus leaving a triangular piece of wall standing out at each end. This may not be serious in many oases, but if a front lighting is wanted it considerably curtails it, and this is more especially so when the studio is rather a short one, as the angle of light is then necessarily more acute. Great caution must be exercised in erecting a studio near vacant land, as there is no guarantee that another building will not be erected that will shut the light completely out. In order to secure the right to do this, a landowner will often erect a screen on poles so as to block any window on neighboring land in order to prevent any subsequent claim to "ancient lights."
          It is easy to realise that different situations call for differently designed studios. In the commonest case of difficulty, where there is top light only, it is desirable to have as long; a range of glass in the roof as possible, as we can them draw the blinds well over the sitter's head, turn him slightly away from the light, and get the effect of a high side light; such a studio should be built as wide as possible for this reason.
          Studios of moderate height with side light only do not, perhaps, come within our scope, but as they, in common with those with top light only, are capable of being improved by the addition of a supplementary artificial light, we mention, them. A top light may easily be produced under an opaque ceiling by using either the half-watt or an enclosed arc lamp in a metal reflector, which gives a strong though soft reflected light from the ceiling, while similar lamps may be used either to illuminate a white side wall or to give a direct side light through a diffuser. The mixture of lights is not at all objectionable, and, in fact, will hardly be noticed by many sitters.
          Difficulties in lighting will be minimized if the studio be wide enough to allow of considerable latitude in the placing of the sitter; it should be possible to work diagonally or evens quite across the studio, and it should always be arranged, if possible, that either end of the studio can be used.
          When inspecting an empty studio or the site- for building one, a very simple way of judging of its possibilities is to seat oneself in the position likely to be occupied by the sitter, and from there to note how much clear sky is visible, and the nature of any obstructions. This gives a good starting-point, and is better than attempting to judge the lighting, at all events, in the open air.

PRACTICUS.

Practicus In The Studio: Studio Accessories and Furniture.

           In no respect does the modern style of studio differ more From its predecessors than in the matter of accessories, and we might treat the former in the same way as did the writer of a book on Iceland. A chapter was headed "Snakes in Iceland," and the chapter consisted merely of the words, “There are no snakes in Iceland."
           When we speak of accessories it recalls to the old operator the wonderful combination sets in papier mache on a wooden foundation which gave pedestals, balustrades, stairs, bridges and a host of other things as they happened to be arranged, or the equally wonderful pieces of furniture which professed to represent a piano, a writing-table, a bookcase, and a seat, and deceived nobody. Then we had rocks, stone walls and loose boulders which were sometimes useful, not to mention ships masts, boats, and swings. These have now, happily, found a rating-place in the lumber-room or have helped to relieve the shortage of coal in these upside down times. Still one cannot but help feeling that the accessories themselves were not alone to blame for artificial-looking pictures, the unintelligent and mechanical way of using them being equally to blame. I believe it to be possible that we shall again revert to the use of more accessories in the true sense of the word, when someone finds it necessary to be “original” and to produce something to relieve the severe simplicity of the head and three-quarter length portraits which are now the vogue. The modern portraitist is not likely to fall into the errors of his predecessors, as be has learned to concentrate the interest in his nictures by subordinating unnecessary detail and would not think of making a negative in which the surroundings were as brilliantly and as sharply defined as the figure itself. Although they are somewhat out of favour at present I must confess to a liking for full-length figures, and it is difficult to get these well balanced without introducing something to give the needed spot or mass of light and shadow which makes the composition complete. This is, of course, widely different from the old practice of building a samba of plants and vases round a lady’s figure, so often done by the byegone masters of our art.
           A safe principle for the guidance of those who have to equip a to follow the advice of Ruskin and to have “nothing except what yon know to be useful or believe to be Beautiful.” Do not buy settees or chairs which no sane person would ever admit to a dwelling-house, but select every piece or furniture, whether intended for the studio, the reception-room or even the dressing-room, with a view to its suitability for inclusion in a picture sooner or fact. Variety, it his been said, is the spice of life, and variety in your work can be more easily secured if there is an ample choice in the matter of furniture. You will then steer clear of the error made by en American photographer whose confession I read a few years ago. He specialized in children's portraits, and when the twisted wicker chairs and settees were introduced invested in a fine specimen. Needing a new window display, he made a large canvas-covered panel, and fixed upon it a score or so of his latest and best productions. It was set up in the window and he went outside to judge the effect; when he viewed it he said that all he could see was twenty wicker settees with babies on them. A sadder and a wiser man, he went inside and promptly dismantled the show from which he had anticipated so much.
           Much of the charm of "home portraits" is due to the natural posing and the judicious inclusion of furniture and ornaments which are associated with the sitter in the minds of his friends. A scholar taken in his study appears more at homo than he does against a plain dark background, and in the case of people who, as an old friend of mine said, "are more distinguished by their facial peculiarities than by actual beauty," there is a real advantage in having something beside those "facial peculiarities" to rest the eye upon. In studio portraits therefore we should endeavour to reproduce the homo atmosphere as nearly as possible and to avoid giving the impression that the whole thing is a make-up. If it be desired to make a picture of a man at his writing-table, the general idea seems to sit him at a small polished table with one or two pieces of paper and a small ink-bottle and pen borrowed from the reception-room. Such an arrangement is little better than the Oriental method of arranging theatrical scenery, in which one painting does for ill the scenes, with the addition of a label to tell the audience whether it is a palace or a forest.
           When selecting chairs or settees they should be chosen not for the beauty of their design when empty but for their appearance with a person seated in them. It will frequently be found that the arms are too high or that the curves are such that a graceful pose, especially of the forearm and hand, cannot be obtained. Many chairs are far too low in the seat and have either to be made up with loose cushions or by fitting rather high castors to the legs. It is, however, necessary to have some low chairs for short people, but with ordinary-sized sitters a better pose of the shoulders is obtained by using a chair rather higher than usual. Settees are best of normal height, as in them a more lounging pose is usually wanted, so that all that is necessary is to avoid the special photographic patterns, except those of the garden-seat pattern, which are useful for sketch or outdoor effects. That much-maligned article the pedestal has had its day: it was hard-worked and has earned a rest. It has a useful successor in the flower or vase stand, which is very handy with standing figures, which would look a little lonely without it. It should never be used for the sitter to lean against, but with ladies portraits may be used to support a bouquet or a vase of flowers which the sitter is arranging. It may also be used to hold the busby or helmet of an officer in full dress, to avoid the necessity in the hand or omitting it from the picture, to both of which there are serious objections.
           Children’s portraits permit of the use of many simple accessories, especially for outdoor effects. I made a very useful tree-stump of a lard bucket carefully covered with virgin cork, so as to give the effect, of living bark, the lower ends being well spread so as to appear like roots. This with a cylindrical hollow "log," covered in the same way, afforded many excellent poses and did not look artificial. If the cork had been stuck in anyhow the things would have been useless. When working with these or other outdoor accessories a pail of coarse sawdust, the dirtier the better, is a great help. If a painted floor cloth be laid on the floor and the sawdust it, it looks like sandy earth and will show foot-marks, while it can be piled round the bases of such accessories as I have mentioned.
           A baby-holder is an accessory which should be in every studio that is not exclusively devoted to adults. It may either be of the American or clip variety, in which the child's garments are caught in clips' attached to an upright post, or it may be like a triangular seat with a low bark and a hole through which the child may be held by a person behind. I have found a broad tape, which could be passed round the child's waist and fastened at the back of the holder, a very useful addition. Such holders are, of course, only intended for babies who can just sit up, and could not be trusted in an ordinary chair; besides, it permits the feet to be shown nicely.
           Although I am more inclined to class them with apparatus, certain studio appliances are often called accessories. The head-rest is one and one which I should be sorry to dispense with. Some care is necessary in choosing and handling this instrument. In the first place it should not be heavy, and in the second place it should be simple. What is needed is a support which can be quietly placed behind the sitter (or usually slander), and adjusted so as to give the necessary steadiness. I may say that I rarely place the rest to the head, finding the shoulder or lower part of the neck to be a better position and less embarrassing to the sitter. The number of plates which are wasted on standing poses through "moves" by photographers who consider the head-rest out of date must be enormous. All the moving parts should be kept, like a rifle, bright and oiled where necessary, so that there is no jerkiness in action. Another necessary which I consider indispensable is the head screen. This needs no description, but the covering demands a few words. Most head-screens are covered with a sort of lawn, and this is generally useful; I have also tried light blue nun's veiling, nainsook, and tracing-cloth, as well as butter muslin: these all have different light-arresting powers, and the user must choose for himself if he does not find the stock covering to his liking. A black gauze is sometimes used when it is desired to cut off light without diffusing it. Such a screen is very useful for toning down white draperies without losing the modeling. The reflector also needs no description. As far as its qualities go it should be light in weight, not too large, and capable of being adjusted to various angles. As a rule the surface is too light when purchased, but this defect soon disappears. When the surface gets very grey the material should be, washed, but if it cannot be readily detached from the frame it may have a dressing if Blanco, a sort of pipe clay used by soldiers and for tennis shoes.
           To revert to our original subject of accessories which appear in the picture, I would point out that modern printing and enlarging methods offer such opportunities for control that many of the old negatives which gave meretricious results in albumen or gelatine-chloride would give quite artistic prints upon rough paper with the sharp offensive lights toned down. Uniform sharpness throughout the negative is no longer considered as desirable, so that any falseness of texture in the accessories is not shown in the finished picture. Finally, do not overcrowd your composition; do not use more accessories than are needed. If not needed, do not use them.

PRACTICUS.

Practicus In The Studio: A Talk About Lighting.

           Lighting the sitter is one of the most difficult subject to discourse upon that could well be chosen, for so narrow is the margin between success and failure that it u not possible to give definite rules which will ensure the same results under different conditions; in fact, so far m this true that there is a legend that one successful portraitist abstains from having his windows cleaned lest the lighting should thereby be rendered to hard.
            Hearty very competent writer on the subject has recommended the study of lighting to be begun with s plaster bust, and with this I heartily agree. The only thing better would be to follow the example of Adam Salomon and have life-sized wax figures with hair and clothes complete. A life-sized bust is not an expensive luxury even in war-time, for I recently purchased one near Hatton Garden for five shillings. It was the head and shoulders of Gibson's Venus, and has not special pretensions to classical beauty; it is just a moderately good-looking young woman with her head well balanced upon her shoulders. Busts having the head in unusual positions should be avoided, as the lighting which might suit them will not be useful for sitters.
            Having got our bust, the first thing to be done is to give it a coat of buff or very pale terra-cotta distemper, so that the light values will be about the same as those of the living model. This u very important, as white plaster reflects far too much light for our purpose. The reason why I advocate the use of a bust instead of a living sitter is that the latter cannot keep still for the time required for study, and the student will quickly see how a slight movement of the head upsets all his plans for obtaining a certain effect.
            The bust must be placed on a table so as to be about the height of an ordinary sitting figure, and in front of a plain medium-toned background. It should be in such a position that a high side light falls upon it, the light being rather to the front of the object. In an ordinary span-roof studio this would mean that the dark blinds or curtains would be drawn over one end of the studio, both top and side, for about five feet The bust should be about three and a half feet from the end wall the next blind should be half-down and the next quite open; the side light is obscured up to nearly five feet from the ground, and is open for about six feet run. If we now examine the lighting we shall find it fairly round, but rather contrasty. This is all for the best, for we can readily see the effect of altering the positions of the bust, the blinds and the camera respectively. One golden rule, by whom originally written I know not, is that "light from the sitter's end of the studio gives contrast, while light from the camera end gives softness." I cannot too strongly impress this fact upon the beginner.
            In ordinary circumstances, if the lighting is too harsh, open more blinds over the camera end; if too soft, close them over the camera and open them near the sitter. This one rule is the key to simple lighting, and its application will prevent much floundering in the early stages. If we do not want to alter the blinds we may move the sitter; if she goes further under the dark blinds we get softness; if she comes forward we get contrast.
            Excess of top-light is the commonest fault in portrait lighting; but there are times when top-light is needed. A flat face with insignificant features calls for it, as Mr. H. P. Robinson says: "I think I should use a good deal of vertical light in taking the portrait of a Chinaman." If the sitter had strong features and deep-set eyes such lighting would be disastrous. We may now try the effect first of turning the bust to and from the light, and you will quickly see how the modeling of the face is affected. As we turn the nose to the light the further check becomes illuminated, while as we turn it away it sinks into shadow. I would ask you to remember that neither the camera nor the sitter is screwed to the floor, so that you can obtain the same position of the head, but with very different lightings, by turning it till the desired effect is obtained, and then placing the camera in the position whence you observed it. Always keep your eyes open for accidental effects of lighting, and note the sitter's position in the studio for future use; some of these "observed" lightings are much better than those carefully arranged. I have nearly always found that the effects obtained with dark blinds and clear glass only are rather too vigorous for the ordinary run of work, hence it is very desirable to have in addition very thin white blinds or curtains so as to diffuse the light a little and tone down the glaring effect of the nigh-lights. If there are no white blinds an ordinary circular head-screen covered with thin nainsook or pale-blue nun's veiling is very useful. The nearer this is placed to the sitter the softer will be the lighting, and vice versa. In studios which are so placed that direct sunlight falls upon the glass during any period of the day white blinds should be used to cover all the glass. I have worked in this way in a studio facing due west, on which the sun shone from 11 a.m. until evening. In such a studio we must not have too large an expanse of white-covered window open at once, or we shall get flat negatives.
            A point which should never be lost sight of is that the actual design or pattern of the studio is of no moment. So long as the light can be made to fall upon the sitter at the desired angle, ridge roof, single slant, top-light, high side-light will all give the same result if properly handled. Much more depends upon outside influences; trees, walls, other buildings all serve to modify the lighting and an arrangement of blinds which will suit the sitter in one studio may fail to do so in another which is differently placed.
            A lofty studio is not to be desired. I remember one clever photographer who said that he would work under a cucumber frame if he could. In a high-roofed studio the light is very difficult to control, as it is too far away from the sitter. Even, soft effects are easily obtained, but when any decided lighting is needed it becomes necessary to close all the blinds and to use the side-light only, and that only in a limited area.
            A few words on unusual forms of studio may not come amiss. When working in a studio which has top-light only, the sitter must be placed well back under the dark blinds, and plenty of light admitted from the "camera end." It is also often advantageous to turn the sitter slightly to one side of the studio and to work the camera close to that side of the studio, towards which he is looking, the background being, of course, placed diagonally across the corner. In a studio with a high side window only it is often necessary to place the sitter as close to the window side as possible, so as to get the effect of top-light. If too low a side-light be used the eyes are filled with light and look flat. What is sometimes called a "miniature-painter's light" is a high front light. This gives a very even, illumination of the face, but if properly managed there should be sufficient shadow and one side to avoid flatness. If it be desired to copy the lighting in an existing photograph or even a painting, if by a good artist, the spark of light in the eye forms a reliable guide as to the position of the dominant light. If this be high or nearly in the centre of the top of the iris, in the position say of 11 o'clock on a watch dial, it denotes a high front light, if in the position of 9 o'clock a low side light, and so on In some fancy lightings it may even be at 6 o'clock, which shows that the light comes from below.
            I will now deal briefly with screens and reflectors. The head-screen I have already dealt with as far as lighting the features is concerned, but it has other uses, such as subduing the light on white drapery. Nothing is more objectionable than to have a white dress brilliantly illuminated, making the face appear too dark and receding into the background. By use of the small head-screen this may be avoided, the shadow being cast where required. In some cases a screen covered with a thin open black material is useful, as it will cast a shadow without diffusing white light in other directions. Reflectors are usually relied upon too much; only when the lighting is nearly satisfactory but the shadows are too dark should they be introduced, and then not placed close up to the sitter. In this position they destroy all the modelling on the shadow side and give an unnatural appearance. It is unfortunately too common for the operator to make a hard lighting and then to use the reflector to even up the face. This is wrong, as it does nothing to subdue the over lighting on the other side. There is no need to be afraid of using a screen or white blind to soften the high-lights, as it does not cut off any light from the shadows which are still receiving front light and reflected light from the studio. If the same exposure be given with the high-lights screened the negative can be developed for the shadows without the high-lights blocking up.
            In conclusion, I would caution the tyro against judging lighting by the eye alone, the negative being the only test. The plate does not always see the sitter in the same way as the operator does. Some plates have a tendency to intensify the light, while others soften it. The lens also has a say in the matter, a short-focus lens usually giving a more brilliant negative than a long focus one does. This is partly due to scattered light in the studio, but it also seems to be caused by the distance between lens and plate. Naturally the operator will see that his lens is clean, his camera well blacked inside, and his dark-room light beyond suspicion before he starts work, or he is simply inviting failure in any attempt to secure good lighting.

PRACTICUS.

Practicus In The Studio: Studio Exposures.

            Correct exposure is one of the most important of the factors in making perfect photographs, yet the majority of portra approach it in the most casual manner, and apparently trust to a sort of sixth sense to tell them how long to keep the shutter open, or as one Mid to me, "It is like taking a dire into water; when I press the bulb, I do not know when I am coming to the surface.” With long practice it is possible to work successfully in this sab-conscious way, but most people will find it desirable to have some definite idea of the number of seconds necessary to give the exact quality of negative which is aimed at. I want you to take particular notice of those last words. There can be no fixed standard of exposure or density in portrait work, or we should all arrive at one monotonous style, without that touch of individualism which now distinguishes our best photographers from one another. Twenty or thirty years ago there was an established ideal of a clear, sparkling negative ranging from clear glass to opacity, and a high-class operator who did not conform to it had little chance of employment. Many negatives which would be appreciated to-day were then thrown aside as failures, because they were too soft or too hard to print in the limited range of media then available, but now we are more free to choose our methods, and can produce negatives to satisfy our own artistic instincts. Therefore it is necessary if we are to be consistently good in our work we must not trust to "flukes" for our successes, but to study the conditions under which our particular class of negatives can be obtained.
            On asking one of our best known outdoor photographers bow he secured such uniformly perfect negatives. I was told that they were obtained by "exposing to suit the developer.” This was in the pre-Watkins days, when no attempt had been made to systematize development and most people believed that the clever worker owed his success to modifying the developer according to the appearance of the imago, often beginning with plain pyro solution, and working up the negative by adding alkali and bromide drop by drop. This idea is now exploded, proving that my friend was a true prophet when he asserted that the prime factor in producing the negative was correct exposure Hurter and Driffield, to whom photographers owe so much, have taught us that the amount of silver affected by light when a plate is exposed is in definite proportion to the length of exposure given, bat this assumes that all the so affected is reduced by the developer, or, in other words, the plate is “developed right out," which is rarely the case in studio work, most portraitists finding that such a procedure produces too much contrast. This fact has been recognized by both plate and developer makers who prescribe different times of development for portrait, landscape and copy negative, the former always being much shorter than the latter two.
            To establish a correct method of exposure we must make a few experiments, working with a standard developer, and a fixed time of development, which may be obtained by the factorial system, the only variation being made in the exposure. It is convenient and economical, besides assuring uniformity of rapidity in the emulsion, to make several exposures on one plate, and this can easily be done in most studio cameras by fixing a small mask in the camera back and marking the slide so as to show when the plate is in position. The easiest size is to work three upon a half-plate, cutting a mask with opening two inches by four and fixing this in the existing carte or cabinet mask. If the slide has notches for single exposures, and also for repeating two C.D.V. on half-plate, the centre notch may be used, but new marks s little farther from the centre must be made for the two end exposures. For my own use I have made a repeating back which allows of four exposures, each three inches by two clear, from the rebate upon a half-plate, and this I find handy for many other purposes.
            The exposures, which must, of course, be upon the same subject, may be varied in any proportion which the operator desires. Usually double at each step will be found as good as any for portrait work, as our negative will then show us the effect of one, two, four, and eight seconds' exposure. The result will be rather surprising to those who try it for the first time; for, supposing that the one-second exposure gives a thin but printable negative, it will be found that the eight-seconds section, although thick and slow to print, will also yield a passable result. That, however, is not my point, which is that the operator should now select the exposure which gives him the quality of imam- he wants, or if none quite pleases him should give an exposure between the two which he judges to be nearest correct. So far so good. Now all depends upon correctly estimating the value of the light, and this can better be done with an exposure meter than by the exercise of personal judgment. If we use an ordinary Bee meter and note the time taken to match the tint at the. time of making our exposures we shall be able to establish a ratio between meter time and exposure for any light or lighting. For example, if we find that our selected exposure is four seconds, and that it took right minutes to get the tint, we haw the proportion of half a second for each meter minute. Naturally I do not propose that anyone should make meter tests while sitter waits, but an occasional test between whiles can easily be managed. The plate speed and lens aperture must be unchanged, or due allowance must be made, or this system will be worse than useless.
            It is often found that when strong effects of light and shade are being tried for that the negatives turn out hard and chalky and do not at all represent the model as seen by the artist. There are two causes of this, both closely connected, under-exposure and over-development, the latter being due to an attempted to force out shadow detail. Now, if development had been done by time without regard to the appearance of the image, we should have retained the detail in the high lights, but the shadow detail would still have been wanting. Longer exposure would remedy this without giving flatness, unless-unite an unreasonable time were given. This class of subject affords an excellent field for the progressive series of exposures already recommended; or if it be thought that the effect cannot be judged from so small s plate two full-sized exposures may be made, one receiving three times as long as the other, both being developed for the same time in the same dish.
            It is important when making experiments in exposure to keep not only to one make of plate, but to the same grade. Emulsions vary in character, and two grades which are, perhaps, marked 200 and 240 H and D, cannot be relied upon to give the same quality of image, even if the difference in speed be accurately allowed for; much more is this the case if two makes of plate he mixed up. For the same reason one developer should be adhered to, and for printing quality land adaptability to various subjects and lightings there is nothing to beat the old-established pyro-sods. Remember that a negative is only a means to an end, and that "pretty" negatives do not always give the best of prints. Although not strictly within my subject, I feed that at the present time of year it is not amiss to on that pyro is less affected in its action by variations of temperature than most other developing agents. I have only recently found the slow action of another developer mistaken for under exposure, with the result that the exposures were increased and flatness resulted.
            A point which mart not be missed is the effect of the distance between lens and sitter upon exposure. This is always allowed for in copying, but is often overlooked in portraiture. Most operators know that a large head requires more exposure than a full length, other things being equal, but perhaps could not toll you why. There are two reasons, one being the increase in the focal length of the lens a the sitter approaches the camera, and the other the flattening of the lighting by the greater amount of atmosphere which intervenes as the sitter is placed further from the camera. Let us consider the former case, assuming that a head measures 9 inches in height and we are making a 3 in. image of it: this adds one-third to the camera extension, supposing we are using an 18 in. lens working at F/6 for infinity; one-third added to the focal length gives us 24 ins - in other words, we are working at F/8, which requires practically double the exposure. When taking a full-length cabinet the reduction would be l/12th, which would only add an inch and a half to the original focal length, and this we could safely ignore so far as exposure is concerned. In the second case the increase in exposure is only apparent, not real. If there is a certain amount of fog over the shadows it covers the bare glass, but there is no more detail in the shadows than there would be if the atmosphere were perfectly clear. In London, where the atmosphere is as thick in winter as it is in most places, many photographers use a lens of shorter focal length than they would otherwise, in order to avoid this flattening.
            In conclusion, let me impress upon the notice that correct exposure is the key to satisfactory results. Leaving colour effects out of the question, any arrangement of light and shade can be correctly reproduced if the proper exposure be given. We can flatten the scale by over-exposure, we can sharpen it by under-exposure, so that if we hit the happy mean we shall get upon our negative what we saw when looking at the sitter. Surely such a consummation is worth taking pains to attain, instead of following the usual "hit or miss" way.

PRACTICUS.

Practicus In The Studio: Backgrounds

           The modern photographer regards the background of a picture in a very different light from his predecessor of twenty, or even ten, years ago. Then it was the custom to use elaborately painted scenes, which were supposed to be more or lees suited to the social standing of the sitter. Usually they were highly incongruous, and we often found such combinations as a butcher-boy in a tropical conservatory or a lady in evening dress waiting by the banks of bonnie Loch Lomond. I well remember one enterprising firm who went so far as to have the entrance to Hyde Park accurately reproduced with real posts and rails for church parade sitters, and an interior of one of the salons in Buckingham Palace for court dresses. This sort of thing was borrowed from a certain school of portrait painters who considered it necessary to depict their models in what they considered an appropriate entourage. Fortunately we have changed all that, and the scenic background is rarely used except in the "while-you-wait" studio, where it serves to cover up finger-prints and stress markings in other words, it has almost entirely "retired into the background." The painter had one reason for introducing scenic effects into his pictures which does not apply to photography, for his subject being fully coloured often called for a foil, a warm-toned curtain, or sometimes even a conflagration, as in some naval or military portraits being used to modify a rubicund complexion, while a delicate sky or light foliage served to enhance the charms of a blonde beauty.
           The modern photographer has evidently taken a lesson from stage lighting, in which a concentrated light is often thrown upon the principal character, while the garish colours of the scenery are allowed to remain in semi-obscurity; and this has been all to the good as far as the artistic nature of the result is concerned. Many photographers now confine themselves to plain backgrounds. It is a safe course, although one sometime, (eels that a little relief would often be acceptable, especially for half and full length poses. Hence a dark cloud or suggestion of foliage is often useful, as it allows the figure to show more relief by opposing a light portion to the shadow side of the sitter. There is one disadvantage in using this class of background because it is not always possible to bring the light patch into the desired position. This was overcome by a device, little known in this country, which consisted in having the background made in an endless belt running over two rollers, something like a roller towel, by which the height of any portion of the surface can be adjusted to a nicety. Such a background may carry foliage suggestions, clouds, and plain surfaces in various sections, as the length of 16 ft. affords ample room. Another device for securing gradation was to have the ground made in the form of a shallow saucer, which gave a perfectly natural effect of light and shade just where it was wanted. Such a construction was found in practice to be too unwieldy for general use, and a more convenient way of carrying out the same idea is to have a tall screen made of narrow strips of wood glued to an ordinary plain canvas background of a medium grey tint. This can be placed so as to form a kind of alcove behind the sitter, more or less concavity being given as harder or softer gradation is required, or even be used flat, while when done with it can be rolled up and put in a corner. To make the method of construction quite clear, I will compare it to the roller shutter of a studio dark slide, the wooden slips being, of coarse, turned away from the sitter. Tapestries and curtains form effective backgrounds if judiciously used, but neither the pattern nor the folds should be pronounced in character, only enough being shown to break up the flatness of a plain surface.
           The illumination of the background has an important effect upon its depth of colour, and much may be done by turning it to or from the light, while the distance it is placed under the drawn blinds gives somewhat similar modification. Thus, to obtain the darkest effect from any given tint of grey, we keep it well back from the sitter and bring the edge nearest the side light as far forward as may be, the reverse being done when a lighter tone is required.
           In the case of white backgrounds for "sketch" work it is usually recommended to light these independently by opening the blinds behind the sitter. This is all right in a dull light, but on a bright day the flood of light so projected into the lens is very likely to cause a general fog over the negative. Certainly if the quality of the work is to be considered it is better to secure opacity by Mr. Adamson's method of using red ink and seccotine on the back of the negative. A common error is to paint sketch backgrounds a bluish-white, the idea being that a denser deposit will be obtained. This is quite wrong ; nothing can be whiter than white; the blue only masks any yellow tint in the distemper, and there is no gain by adding it.
           From time to time attempts hare been made to print in backgrounds from film negatives interposed between the portrait negative or to put in backgrounds on the back of the glass. These plans are rarely satisfactory, though in some cases excellent results have been obtained. As a rule, however, the general effect is not so good as from a background which has been photographed with the sitter.
           The materials used for backgrounds are various. For plain tints Melton cloth is excellent when it can be obtained. Failing this, distemper on canvas or stout sheeting is very suitable. For graduated backgrounds distemper may also be used, but it requires a considerable degree of skill to apply it, so that the necessary softness is obtained, and for this class I therefore prefer flatted oil-colour, which does not alter in depth upon drying, and which can be easily worked and softened while wet. Aerograph work upon a plain grey distemper foundation answers very well, but it takes some time to cover so large a space. The aerograph is also excellent for subduing contrast in scenic backgrounds which are too contrasty. I have also improved such by rubbing on black chalk powder exactly in the same way as in finishing an enlargement, but care must be taken to avoid patchiness if there are decided brush marks on the surface. For small grounds up to 54 in. wide dark green or red serge is very good, and a little light may be introduced by dusting powdered French chalk on where required. This is easily removed with a clothes-brush if the plain surface is again required. If you wish to distemper your own backgrounds it is better to purchase one of the many ready-made distempers or to use the Kalko powders (Vanguard Co.). which are specially prepared for this work. Oil-colours should not be purchased ready mixed; they should be procured "ground in oil" in a stiff paste, and this should be thinned down with turpentine or on of the current "turpentine substitutes."
           Lincrusta and Anaglypta are useful for making imitation panelled backgrounds. The latter, being a kind of embossed papier mache, is the cheaper, but will not stand knocking it so well as the Lincrusta does.
           Now that we do not require so many backgrounds the old-fashioned multiple stand should be discarded and the material should be stretched upon light wooden frames fixed upon feet with castors, so that they may be moved about the studio easily and used at either end or diagonally, as may be desired. It is a good plan to have the ends of the studio finished so that they may be used as backgrounds. This has also the excellent fleet of preventing the space behind the movable screens being used as a receptacle for lumber. The oak paneling comes in very well for this, and if the entire end be covered a large group can be accommodated without having to eke out the ordinary-sized ground with curtains, side slips, and other make-shifts.
           As a guide to those who are attempting to make or renovate their own backgrounds for the first time, I give the following hints. Do not expect to get an even surface with one coat of distemper. You may do so but, if not, do not be discouraged, apply a second coat rather thinner in consistency. If working on new canvas or sheeting it is a good plan to give a first coat or filling of thin size, or even starch or flour-paste. Tins prevent the distemper from being sucked into the material, and makes it easier to apply. For oil colour, ordinary glue size is to be preferred. A large paint brush, about three inches across, is easier for the amateur to manage than the orthodox distemper brush, and should always be used for oil. Work quietly, and do not slop on too much colour at once. A good grey can be made by mixing a little Venetian Bed and blue with the black and white. This looks warmer, and photographs better than black and white alone. Remember that distemper dries many shades darker than it appears when wet; therefore before using your mixed colour try a patch' on brown paper and dry it before the fire: you will then know what your background will look like when dry. A very little white will turn black into a light grey. Do not buy black in a dry powder, as it is very difficult to mix; ask for black ground in water. Always strain your distemper through muslin before using, or eke you will get streaks which are caused by unmixed particles of colour which break up under the brush.
           There is a right and a wrong way of nailing a background on to its frame. The wrong way is to fasten all four corners and then to go round the sides. The right way is to drive a strong tack in the middle of the top edge, then to pull the canvas as tightly as possible and drive another tack in the middle of the bottom; then fasten the two sides in the same way. Having got a straight pull these two ways, begin driving in tacks about one and a-half inches apart towards the corners, always working from the centre. In this way any fulness is drawn out as you go on, and the background will be perfectly flat and free from wrinkles. It is a good plan to fasten a loop handle tit iron or brass at each side of the frame; this obviates the necessity of handling the edge of the wood, and keeps the background in much bettor condition. If the frame is wider than you can stretch, a loop of webbing or cord, about eighteen inches long, should be fastened to one of the handles. Holding this and one handle, you can easily move an eight-foot frame single-handed, although if good castors are fitted it may not be necessary to lift it very often.

PRACTICUS.