EX CATHEDRA: Phase and Change; Strong v. Saturated Solutions; Commercial Flower Photography; Field Camera Bellows.

Phase and Change.

           While much is being talked of reconstruction on the grand scale, in the comparatively small field of photography we see things changing as the inevitable result of the circumstances of the time. The balance between the supply of and demand for labour - if that can be called a balance which a few months ago showed the latter to be immensely in excess of the former has been disturbed, and signs are plainly discernible of a reversion to the pre-war conditions under which the supply, or, at any rate, the publicly offered supply, was greater than the demand. It is easy to understand that the progress of demobilization in conjunction with the new labour which has been recruited daring the war should tend towards this condition in the ranks of photographic assistants. And the same thing is observable in respect to the firms or individuals who cater for photographers trade work. Such who have come into existence during the war now find themselves in competition with the demobilized ones who formerly had their established circle of customers, and are now taking active steps to recover their business. The circumstance provides a caution to those who may be thinking of purchasing a war-created business of this kind. A connection is difficultly held, and from several motives customers will be likely to return to those who previously had their patronage. The difficulties of supply, and, in many cases, the lower quality of work during the war period are factors which will operate in the direction of restoring custom to those who previously had it, and for this reason a business which is no more than two or three years old becomes a somewhat speculative proposition.

Strong v. Saturated Solutions.

           The keeping of certain chemicals saturated solutions is a recommendation which comes from the old days of photography when workers had a nodding acquaintance with practical chemical operations. At the present time, when such knowledge is the possession of a very small minority, the practice may lead to a degree of error which may not be suspected by the individual worker. Few will take the trouble to test the temperature of a saturated solution or to make certain that it is saturated at that temperature. And even if that is done, an awkward calculation is necessary in order to discover the quantity of solid chemical which a given volume of the solution represents. On these accounts it is a much better plan, we think, to sacrifice a measure of the concentration afforded by a saturated solution and to obtain in exchange the certainty of constant strength and the convenience of translating from solution to solid. To put this idea into a concrete shape, a saturated solution of hypo is one which varies greatly in strength according to the temperature, and at any given temperature represents per unit volume an odd weight of the chemical. A much more satisfactory and convenient plan of keeping hypo in concentrated solution is to dissolve the crystals in water and make up to a volume corresponding with twice the weight for example, 1 lb. of hypo dissolved in water to form a total bulk of 32 ozs. One ounce of hypo is then contained in every two ounces of the solution and the making up of fixing baths of any required strength becomes the simplest of arithmetical calculations. The same plan may be adopted for less soluble substances, choosing a ratio of 1:3 or 1:4 in place of the 1:2 which is possible only for such extremely soluble substances as hypo, potassium carbonate, and a few others.

Commercial Flower Photography.

           One of the most difficult branches of commercial photography is the portrayal of flowers, fruit, or vegetables for catalogue illustration, yet it is work that is frequently in demand. A good knowledge of florists, flowers and horticulture generally will go far to helping the operator in emphasizing just those points that the grower or advertiser wishes to put forward to his public. Perhaps our meaning may be the more plain if we give a simple illustration, taking the case of that popular flower the sweet pea, one, which it may be added is constantly being improved by various growers who are rapidly coming to see that one of the most direct, simple and effective methods of advertising the value of their new varieties and bringing their good points before flower-loving connoisseurs is a good photograph of a perfect bloom. Among the points looked for in the perfect sweet pea are the number of flowers that can be grown upon a single stem, their spacing upon the stalk, the length of the latter, a most important point, the size of the individual blossoms, and in connection with this an absence of what is technically termed "coarseness," and lastly the colour of the flowers. If a photograph of a perfect bloom selected at some trouble by a fastidious grower is to be a success then it will have to be something more than an ordinary hit or miss photograph of the bloom, and it will need to be arranged so that the points of the flower are shown to their best advantage. Thus the adjustment of the bloom in its holder or vase is important, likewise the position from which the picture is taken, and the rendering of its texture. In the case of vases of flowers, much the same rules will have to be followed as in the case of single specimens: nothing in the way of a "bunchy" arrangement is to be permitted. Backgrounds are best made of large sheets of mounting card of various colours, and these may also be employed for growing plants out of doors in isolating the subject from its background. Upon the technical side little need be said. An ordinary field outfit having long extension and a good lens of fairly long focus is as good an equipment as can be desired, since, except in the case of flowers growing outside, speed is not of importance. Of course, panchromatic plates and a set of screens are to be regarded as absolutely essential in order to secure correct colour rendering. A thin negative having abundant detail is best, those obtained by the tank method being highly satisfactory. It is becoming realised that a photograph is more satisfactory than one of the best drawings; colour photography is likely to popularise this branch still further, and commercial photographers should take full advantage of the demand.

Field Camera Bellows.

           The modern field camera is locked upon, and justifiably so, as an instrument of precision, and in many ways it is difficult to see how the standard design can be improved. There is one point, however, that is frequently overlooked by designers and that is the importance of fitting their instruments with bellows of sufficient width. Not only do wide bellows avoid trouble due to reflected light from their inner folds, but also it is next to impossible when using wide angle lenses of short focus to avoid some "cut off" of the image on the plate by the edges of the bellows, particularly when these are made to give a long extension. This form of trouble is the more likely to be met with in the conical bellows form than when the instrument has parallel bellows. For the latter type we must confess we have a preference, but even when conical bellows are in use there is no reason why the maker should not fit them of sufficient size to prevent the trouble referred to. Some cameras that we have seen leave much to be desired in the size of their bellows, and we can call to mind one of our own instruments that could never be used with success for wide angle work for this reason. Such a fault in an otherwise excellent design is spoiling the ship for ha'porth o' tar. When the bellows are made for long extension there is often a tendency for them to “cut off” part of the image when used at a shorter extension, and for this a loop of elastic is sometimes fitted to the top of the bellows in order to draw away the extra folds from the line of rays thrown by the lens. We have found in practice that this plan is not very satisfactory, and have supplemented the loop with two more, one at each side, which are attached to the nuts holding the swing front. In this way the extraneous folds are drawn entirely out of the way. When old bellows are inclined to sag in the middle at a long extension, a couple of loops of extra length attached in the same way will go far to overcome the trouble.

The Education Of Assistants.

           Our title has nothing original about it, it has figured pretty frequently in the "Journal" lately, but as the question seems in rather a nebulous state, it is perhaps in order to inquire what it really means. In other trades it is not usual to employ the wide and comprehensive term assistant, but to specify the branch in which the employee is to be engaged. In letterpress printing, for example, we have compositors, linotype operators, machine minders, and warehousemen, and in each division a man is only expected to be proficient in his particular work; but in photography, except in very large establishments, this is not the case, and an' assistant is expected to be able to turn his hand to any job which happens to come in his way, or in other words, if the reputation of the studio is to be kept up, to be as good an all-round worker as his principal and a better one in some particular section. That there are such assistants we very well know, and the photographer who secures the services of one is to be congratulated.
           Now before starting any education scheme it would appear to be necessary to define the various classes of assistants and to set up some standard of proficiency for each. Another important paint to be settled is that of remuneration, so that a youth or girl entering the profession should know what wage can be looked forward to when he, or she, has qualified as proficient. Many things besides scientific knowledge and practical proficiency are called for in everyday work. We have known amateurs capable of turning out prints which would do credit to any studio in the kingdom, but their pace has been hopelessly slow, and no employer could afford to keep them. Nothing but practice in a busy place can give the necessary smartness, and it is a question how this is to be obtained.
           The old practice of engaging a juvenile as a sort of messenger and general helper with more or less opportunity to pick up knowledge of photography will obviously be out of the question under the new regime. Proper teaching should start at the outset, and it is difficult to see how this is to be obtained in many localities. Let us take the case of an intelligent lad living in a small country town who wishes to become a photographer. The only course that is open to him is to obtain work in the local studio with a man who can just manage to make a negative and print it sufficiently well to pass muster with a not too critical class of customers. When the lad begins to want a living wage he looks further a field, only to find that he is one of the incompetents whose existence we all profess to deplore, but who provide a source of cheap labour for the sweaters who, as in all other trades, are found in photography. If we are to have well-trained assistants there must be sufficient inducement for them to be trained in the same way as chemists, engineers, lithographers, or dental mechanics, by a proper system of apprenticeship or pupilage, supplementing their workshop practice with a part-time training in the scientific aspect of their work. The latter cannot be given in a house of business without serious waste of time, so that something on the lines of the Fisher scheme of education must be adopted, and it is for the masters to co-operate with the local authorities to secure this. But such a scheme is only workable with very young people; after the age of eighteen it is very difficult to find that readiness to assimilate knowledge that is natural to the schoolboy. It is easy enough to teach youngsters of fifteen to eighteen such subjects as elementary chemistry, optics, or even art principles, but if those three precious years have been wasted, the mind takes another turn, and learning becomes laborious. Moreover, a bad way of working is acquired, and this is often felt to be sufficient. There is now also the sex question to be considered, as a great change is coming over photography by the invasion of women into almost every branch. Are the assistants of the future to be male or female? Already men returning from army service are finding that situations are not so easily obtained as they had expected, and we look for still further developments in the same direction. Only a few years ago, and women were considered as greatly inferior to men as retouchers. What is the position now? The same thing going on in other branches printing, dark-room work, and even in studio operating - the only field in which male labour is unchallenged being that of outdoor work.
           Still, male or female, we must have assistants, and the initiative for their training must come from the master photographers. Their first problem will be to find instructors, the second to find a body to hold examinations and grant certificates of such a degree of proficiency that the holder can secure a standard, wage. In the organization of the chemists and druggists we have an excellent model. In this profession a youth enters as an apprentice, is given time for study, usually takes a course under a coach, and finally passes his minor and major examinations before he can hope to attain a position as a “qualified assistant.” One of the greatest factors in producing a shortage of good assistants is the ease with which a competent worker can start on his own account in a small wav. If we can offer such terms as will keep good workers in their situations we shall have accomplished much.

Practicus In The Studio: A Talk About Lighting.

           Lighting the sitter is one of the most difficult subject to discourse upon that could well be chosen, for so narrow is the margin between success and failure that it u not possible to give definite rules which will ensure the same results under different conditions; in fact, so far m this true that there is a legend that one successful portraitist abstains from having his windows cleaned lest the lighting should thereby be rendered to hard.
            Hearty very competent writer on the subject has recommended the study of lighting to be begun with s plaster bust, and with this I heartily agree. The only thing better would be to follow the example of Adam Salomon and have life-sized wax figures with hair and clothes complete. A life-sized bust is not an expensive luxury even in war-time, for I recently purchased one near Hatton Garden for five shillings. It was the head and shoulders of Gibson's Venus, and has not special pretensions to classical beauty; it is just a moderately good-looking young woman with her head well balanced upon her shoulders. Busts having the head in unusual positions should be avoided, as the lighting which might suit them will not be useful for sitters.
            Having got our bust, the first thing to be done is to give it a coat of buff or very pale terra-cotta distemper, so that the light values will be about the same as those of the living model. This u very important, as white plaster reflects far too much light for our purpose. The reason why I advocate the use of a bust instead of a living sitter is that the latter cannot keep still for the time required for study, and the student will quickly see how a slight movement of the head upsets all his plans for obtaining a certain effect.
            The bust must be placed on a table so as to be about the height of an ordinary sitting figure, and in front of a plain medium-toned background. It should be in such a position that a high side light falls upon it, the light being rather to the front of the object. In an ordinary span-roof studio this would mean that the dark blinds or curtains would be drawn over one end of the studio, both top and side, for about five feet The bust should be about three and a half feet from the end wall the next blind should be half-down and the next quite open; the side light is obscured up to nearly five feet from the ground, and is open for about six feet run. If we now examine the lighting we shall find it fairly round, but rather contrasty. This is all for the best, for we can readily see the effect of altering the positions of the bust, the blinds and the camera respectively. One golden rule, by whom originally written I know not, is that "light from the sitter's end of the studio gives contrast, while light from the camera end gives softness." I cannot too strongly impress this fact upon the beginner.
            In ordinary circumstances, if the lighting is too harsh, open more blinds over the camera end; if too soft, close them over the camera and open them near the sitter. This one rule is the key to simple lighting, and its application will prevent much floundering in the early stages. If we do not want to alter the blinds we may move the sitter; if she goes further under the dark blinds we get softness; if she comes forward we get contrast.
            Excess of top-light is the commonest fault in portrait lighting; but there are times when top-light is needed. A flat face with insignificant features calls for it, as Mr. H. P. Robinson says: "I think I should use a good deal of vertical light in taking the portrait of a Chinaman." If the sitter had strong features and deep-set eyes such lighting would be disastrous. We may now try the effect first of turning the bust to and from the light, and you will quickly see how the modeling of the face is affected. As we turn the nose to the light the further check becomes illuminated, while as we turn it away it sinks into shadow. I would ask you to remember that neither the camera nor the sitter is screwed to the floor, so that you can obtain the same position of the head, but with very different lightings, by turning it till the desired effect is obtained, and then placing the camera in the position whence you observed it. Always keep your eyes open for accidental effects of lighting, and note the sitter's position in the studio for future use; some of these "observed" lightings are much better than those carefully arranged. I have nearly always found that the effects obtained with dark blinds and clear glass only are rather too vigorous for the ordinary run of work, hence it is very desirable to have in addition very thin white blinds or curtains so as to diffuse the light a little and tone down the glaring effect of the nigh-lights. If there are no white blinds an ordinary circular head-screen covered with thin nainsook or pale-blue nun's veiling is very useful. The nearer this is placed to the sitter the softer will be the lighting, and vice versa. In studios which are so placed that direct sunlight falls upon the glass during any period of the day white blinds should be used to cover all the glass. I have worked in this way in a studio facing due west, on which the sun shone from 11 a.m. until evening. In such a studio we must not have too large an expanse of white-covered window open at once, or we shall get flat negatives.
            A point which should never be lost sight of is that the actual design or pattern of the studio is of no moment. So long as the light can be made to fall upon the sitter at the desired angle, ridge roof, single slant, top-light, high side-light will all give the same result if properly handled. Much more depends upon outside influences; trees, walls, other buildings all serve to modify the lighting and an arrangement of blinds which will suit the sitter in one studio may fail to do so in another which is differently placed.
            A lofty studio is not to be desired. I remember one clever photographer who said that he would work under a cucumber frame if he could. In a high-roofed studio the light is very difficult to control, as it is too far away from the sitter. Even, soft effects are easily obtained, but when any decided lighting is needed it becomes necessary to close all the blinds and to use the side-light only, and that only in a limited area.
            A few words on unusual forms of studio may not come amiss. When working in a studio which has top-light only, the sitter must be placed well back under the dark blinds, and plenty of light admitted from the "camera end." It is also often advantageous to turn the sitter slightly to one side of the studio and to work the camera close to that side of the studio, towards which he is looking, the background being, of course, placed diagonally across the corner. In a studio with a high side window only it is often necessary to place the sitter as close to the window side as possible, so as to get the effect of top-light. If too low a side-light be used the eyes are filled with light and look flat. What is sometimes called a "miniature-painter's light" is a high front light. This gives a very even, illumination of the face, but if properly managed there should be sufficient shadow and one side to avoid flatness. If it be desired to copy the lighting in an existing photograph or even a painting, if by a good artist, the spark of light in the eye forms a reliable guide as to the position of the dominant light. If this be high or nearly in the centre of the top of the iris, in the position say of 11 o'clock on a watch dial, it denotes a high front light, if in the position of 9 o'clock a low side light, and so on In some fancy lightings it may even be at 6 o'clock, which shows that the light comes from below.
            I will now deal briefly with screens and reflectors. The head-screen I have already dealt with as far as lighting the features is concerned, but it has other uses, such as subduing the light on white drapery. Nothing is more objectionable than to have a white dress brilliantly illuminated, making the face appear too dark and receding into the background. By use of the small head-screen this may be avoided, the shadow being cast where required. In some cases a screen covered with a thin open black material is useful, as it will cast a shadow without diffusing white light in other directions. Reflectors are usually relied upon too much; only when the lighting is nearly satisfactory but the shadows are too dark should they be introduced, and then not placed close up to the sitter. In this position they destroy all the modelling on the shadow side and give an unnatural appearance. It is unfortunately too common for the operator to make a hard lighting and then to use the reflector to even up the face. This is wrong, as it does nothing to subdue the over lighting on the other side. There is no need to be afraid of using a screen or white blind to soften the high-lights, as it does not cut off any light from the shadows which are still receiving front light and reflected light from the studio. If the same exposure be given with the high-lights screened the negative can be developed for the shadows without the high-lights blocking up.
            In conclusion, I would caution the tyro against judging lighting by the eye alone, the negative being the only test. The plate does not always see the sitter in the same way as the operator does. Some plates have a tendency to intensify the light, while others soften it. The lens also has a say in the matter, a short-focus lens usually giving a more brilliant negative than a long focus one does. This is partly due to scattered light in the studio, but it also seems to be caused by the distance between lens and plate. Naturally the operator will see that his lens is clean, his camera well blacked inside, and his dark-room light beyond suspicion before he starts work, or he is simply inviting failure in any attempt to secure good lighting.

PRACTICUS.

Lenses Fob Odd Jobs.

           Most professional photographers would be surprised if they were told that in the matter of lens equipment they were far behind many enthusiastic amateurs, but we believe that we are correct in making this assertion. The fact is, that the professional is rather apt to put all his eggs into one basket, or, in other words, to invest in a few first-rate lenses and to consider that he has done all that is needed. He selects lenses for the size of the plate he generally works, and, so far as it goes, this is quite correct; but he seldom has anything to fall back upon for any job which may require one of a different focal length. It is remarkable that this is more likely to be the case with the photographer of to-day than it was a quarter of a century ago. Then it was not uncommon to find an equipment of a complete set of portable symmetricals, twelve in number, ranging from three to, twenty-one inches in focal length, the first ten fitting the same flange and in many cases having the lens cells interchangeable, so that even a variation of half an inch in focal length could be obtained. There were also "casket" sets, usually not of the finest optical quality, but good enough when used with small apertures, which gave an even greater range at a very reasonable cost.
           The portrait man does not, of course, need such a variety of tools, but the man who is willing to take on any class of work frequently finds that he cannot do exactly as he wishes, and, what is more important, what his client wishes, because of his imperfect equipment. This state of things can easily be remedied at quite a small cost if it be borne in mind that a comparatively poor lens works nearly as well as an expensive one if it be possible to use a small aperture. Another point to be remembered is that with modern enlarging methods at our command it is not always necessary to limit ourselves to one particular size of plate, since, if we can get our subjects, it is easy to make prints of a larger or smaller size as may be required.
           Let us take a few examples of possible orders and how they may be executed, or, to be more precise, how such orders have been executed. An extremely wide angle view of a street scene was required to show the disadvantages which would result to a shopkeeper if a railway viaduct were put near his premises. No orthodox lens would give the necessary view angle, but by using a four-inch lens which happened to be at hand, a negative was made upon a whole plate, which did just what was wanted: it gave the width of the picture well defined, and when the top corners were blocked out a 15x12 enlargement was made which did good service in court. Now, how many photographers have a decent four-inch wide angle lens in stock! Yet it is not an expensive tool, and if not paid for by the one job, its possession helps to build up a reputation for efficiency which leads to future orders. Such a lens is not only useful for outdoor work, but for enlarging when only a moderate length of bellows is available. If it be necessary to take a mall head out of a group, a considerable degree of enlargement can be obtained directly instead of having to resort to a second enlarging process. Conversely, such a small lens is of great value for making reductions with the enlarging lantern. If a copy, say, an inch by three-quarters, or less, has to be made from a cabinet negative it is easy to do so.
           Going to the other end of the scale it is a rare thing to find a telephoto lens in the hands of the ordinary photographer; yet is a most useful instrument for many purposes besides taking distant views. We remember some years ago, when the original Adon was introduced, being told by a large firm who specialized in catalogue work that they had been recommended by an amateur to try a telephoto lens for the photography of small articles, with the result that they had greatly improved the perspective in very case to the satisfaction of their customers and their own profit.
           While comparatively cheap lenses of the old rectilinear construction are capable of doing much useful work, we should not recommend their purchase if funds permit of more modern instruments being obtained, for when a lens is being used for copying or in the enlarging lantern at an extension which is many times its focal length, a large aperture is of great advantage, the difference in luminosity between one having an initial aperture of f/6 and f/16 being very noticeable, and if such lenses are of the "convertible" type, giving two or three focal lengths, their utility will be increased. Still, before purchasing new lenses it is as well to take stock of what lenses are on hand, and to make a note of their focal lengths. If duplicates of any one size are found one should be sold or exchanged, so as to secure further variety.
           It may be found that although suitable lenses are available, there is no means of using them upon large cameras or enlarging lanterns, and it is therefore advisable to have them adapted to the flanges already upon such cameras. This can be done at the cost of a very few shillings, and in the case of modern instruments it is not necessary to part with the lens or large flange, as these will be of standard and it will only be necessary to mention the diameter. For a makeshift, a very good plan is to cut a hole in a piece of card so that the lens thread will just go through, securing it by screwing on the flange at the back, the card being attached to the camera front by means of four drawing pins.
           Supplementary lenses of the Planiscope type will often prove useful, to shorten the focal length of lenses which will not give the desired angle or magnification, but it will usually be found necessary to work at a very small aperture when these are used, as the corrections of the original lens are upset. However, for this class of work speed is usually not necessary. A makeshift Planiscope may be made by attaching an ordinary small single lens, such as the front of a small portrait lens or one of the combinations of a rapid rectilinear, by means of a cardboard ring This sound rather crude, but we have known it to be done with success.

Assistants' Notes - 1

Books on Colour.

           Assistants who mean to make photography their profession should look into the question of colour, as pictorial art of the future will be intimately concerned in the study; some authorities-particularly those connected with the vast textile industry declare the future is bound up with it. Students of painting are bidden to study nature secrets, but students of photography will find the scientific side profitable and to their liking. Since 1835 over sixty books have been written, a fourth of that number being published in London, a fifth in New York. The Americans, by their productions of the last ten years, promise to surpass us on all points – by numbers, high prices they command, complete range of subject, interest, and research. As all books of recent yean seem to be written round Rood's "Modern Chromatics,” students will do well to commence with that treatise, as it contains valuable information, clearly written, well illustrated with woodcuts and diagrams, but unfortunately has no colour plates to assist the text. This book having passed through many editions, a clean secondhand copy is more often seen than any other, and is worth looking out for.- BURLINGTON

A Reliable and Permanent Method of Intensification

           Many photographers would be glad to banish mercury from their dark-rooms if they could find a satisfactory substitute for it. Those who use the mercury intensifier know that they cannot depend upon the negative being any use in a year or so, and, although they have tried the chromium method, the danger of yellow stains has caused them to go back to the old process again.
With papers of the "Cyko" class it is essential that the negative should be free from all stain, or the time of printing will be unduly prolonged. The following method of intensification has been in use in a well-known North-Country studio for some considerable time, and may, be depended upon to be stainless action and to give an absolutely permanent result.
           Make up lour solutions: -                                  Water
           A. Potass. bichromate ………………………150 grains 10 ozs.
           B. Potass. bromide ……………………………400 grains 10 ozs.
           C. Hydrochloric acid (pure) ………………200 drops 10 ozs.
           D. Potass. metabisulphite …………………2 ozs. 10 ozs.

For use, take equal parts of A, B, and C. Blench and immerse (after a brief rinse under the Up) in D solution until the yellow lain is completely destroyed. The negative is then re-developed in any non-staining developer without bromide, Azol or a paramidophenol mixture being especially suitable.
           The method is equal to mercury in every way, with the additional advantages of being permanent, and that it is not necessary to eliminate all the hypo in the film previous to bleaching.
           Bay pure chemicals, mix in the proper proportions, and use as directed above, and you cannot fail to get good results. - J. M.

Advertising by Airbrush.

           As American soldier, by trade a sign-writer, was recently making comparisons between this country and his own on questions of advertising, and. although we pointed out that the war had stopped experts here as well, he pointed out the difference between the stylish window tickets of City tailors, shaded in colours by the air-brash, with the old-fashioned printed silver letters on black in a studio showcase, and he could see no evidence that we had ever made nee of striking designs and methods as are tried in America. He criticized photographers, and guessed that the majority tad an artist and an airbrush on the premises, and yet they do not make use of the instrument at all for stenciling through and shading round a design, or even a little ground tint to letters calling attention to the studio's particular style, or inventing an attractive price-list panel for the window. American schools, such as the Detroit School of Lettering, use the airbrush largely for advertisement purposes, believing in colour and design as u means of arresting the eye. - BURLINGTON

EX CATHEDRA: Low-Priced Trade Work; A Lecture on Photography; Focussing Sharply; Patent Specifications.

Low-Priced Trade Work.

           In a business such as photography, in which the goods sold to the public exhibit so wide a range of quality, it is, of course, natural to find a similar range of quality in the work done by trade firms for photographers. In both cases the quality is more or less accurately reflected in the price which is charged. A consideration of these facts should, we think, provide tie answer to those who now and again urge upon our publishers that they should exclude the very low-priced firms from our advertising pages. An order for enlargements to one such firm may have been executed in what the disappointed maker of the negatives angrily calls a “disgraceful" style, on the strength of which, and without showing either the enlargements or the negatives supplied for them, it is protested that the firm should not be allowed to advertise its offers of service. As we have said, a complaint of this kind can only be made in the absence of a comparison between the price which has been paid and that charged by firms of the first or even the second grade. Probably the chief difference between low-price and high-price firms - a more essential difference than poorer materials and cheaper labour is that their scale of prices does not allow them to repair defective work by doing it again. They send their first production unless its defects are too gross even for their standard, and hence the result is very largely a matter of chance. Like the little girl and dependent on the negative, it may be very, very good or it may be horrid. If it be the latter, the purchaser must surely think that he could hardly expect anything else at the price. His case is paralleled by that of anyone who puts money in a high-yielding investment: he is buying something cheaply priced, and he takes his chances on it. No doubt the advertiser announces that his work is first-class, but then what advertiser does not?

A Lecture on Photography.

           Perhaps it is a welcome sign of greater general interest in technical and scientific matters, perhaps the result of the searchlight prominence of photography in the war, but we have lately received quite a number of requests that we should name the book to be recommended to anyone anxious to deliver a popular lecture on photography. The fitness for his purpose of a would-be lecturer who finds it necessary to put the question may be doubted, but at any rate the inquiry exhibits a praiseworthy desire for information, and doubtless there are many with a thorough practical acquaintance with photography who are not too self-confident to see that much more is demanded of a lecturer on the subject. For such as they a book which provides, a serviceable basis of information is Mr. Chapman Jones's "Photography of To-day," a volume which reviews pat and present photographic processes in a popular yet scientific way. On the very earliest history of the art, that is the work of Niepce, Daguerre, and Talbot reference may be made to a series of papers which ran through “The Photogram” for 1900. There are one or two issues of “The Photo-Miniature” which will usefully provide material, viz. those on "Who Discovered Photography”, “Colour Photography," and "Aerial Photography,” and as a means of faking a bird’s-eye view of the successive of photographic progress there is the monograph “Photography, Past and Present” issued as an illustrated supplement to the Diamond Jubilee Number of the “British Journal."

Focussing Sharply.

           In focusing originals, such as paintings, in which the absence of definite outlines presents a difficulty, most photographers make use of a small printed card placed against the surface of the original in order to provide a workable test object. But perhaps it is not so generally recognized that different types of lens require different treatment in order to obtain the best results. As a rule, rapid rectilinears and other lenses possessing greater or less roundness of field give the best average sharpness when the test object is placed so that its image falls about midway between the margin and centre of the field. With most anastigmats it is best to obtain the greatest sharpness in the centre, and the margins will then frequently be sharper in the negative than they appeared on the screen. With all types of lenses great assistance can be given by a judicious use of the swing-back, both vertical and side movements being employed as needed. This is particularly the case when using a portrait lens at its full aperture; a swing of the back will allow of the same degree of good focus over the plate as could, be obtained by a smaller stop. The method must not be abused, particularly when a short-focus lens is being used, otherwise the size of hand and feet in the sitting figure will be unpleasantly exaggerated.

Patent Specifications.

           A correspondent who addresses a query to us raises a point which no doubt is now and again in the minds of many other readers of these pages. It is a matter of common remark that the published specifications of alleged inventions to which patent protection is granted are often things which are as old as the hills or, on the other hand, bear on the face of them certain practical disabilities. But the explanation lies in the fact that the preliminaries in the way of search which are carried out before the granting of the patent extend, not to books and periodicals where the invention very likely has been published, but only to patent specifications themselves issued during the period of fifty years prior to the date of application. Moreover, the Patent Office is not concerned with the efficiency of an invention. It takes the applicant's word for its merits in this respect. Apart from its search in prior specifications its work is not very much more than a registration of the description of the invention and the claims made in respect to it. The questions of efficiency and of prior publication are left to be the subject of investigation in a court of law in the event of any action being taken as to infringement. While there are thousands of existent patents which have not been the subject of this legal inquiry, it is nevertheless true that a patent has not received absolute certification of value until it has been examined in the Courts. Inventors of photographic appliance: should not therefore set too high a value upon the fact that they may have teen granted a patent for a particular appliance. Nevertheless, it is a wise and not very expensive precaution to spend, say, the mutter of five pounds on obtaining protection for any invention before offering it for sale to a commercial firm. The patent rights can then be disposed of, and the co-t of maintaining the patent defrayed the purchasing firm if such is considered advisable.

Practicus In The Studio: Printing Processes For Portraiture.

           I find that nowadays people are rather apt to get into a groove over their printing methods and apparently forget that any other process exists except that which they happen to be working. It thus occurs to me that a brief review of the Different printing media at present available, with notes on the characteristics of each, would be of service to those who wish to vary their work.
           The uncertain character of daylight in Great Britain has made bromide and gaslight papers very popular, and an overwhelming proportion of portrait work is now produced upon them, but thanks to the almost universal supply of electric current, we are not now altogether dependent upon daylight for what may be generally classed as "printing out" as distinguished from developing processes.
           The quality of the negative is an important factor in the production of the print, and only a small proportion of current negatives would yield even a passable result upon the old albumenized paper which for many years was almost exclusively used, so much so, in fact, that a print was hardly regarded as a "real" photograph unless it was made upon it By reason of the quality of the negative required, and because it was impossible to produce it by modern factory methods albumenized paper is now only a memory, and it is impossible to procure even a small quantity through the ordinary channels. Hence it is unnecessary to touch upon it otherwise than by way of reminiscence. Bromide paper in its various grades has taken its place, and I therefore put it first upon the list as being the process for the million, or that proportion of it who practise photography.
           Although in such general use, few portraitists fully appreciate the wonderful variety of surfaces, speeds, and character of emulsions which are available. I cannot fairly allude to any specific makes by name, but will be content to refer my readers to the advertisements in the B.J. Almanac, and the advertisement pages of the weekly Press. Bromide papers may roughly be divided into several groups, although these somewhat overlap each other. We may divide them by speed, that is to say, the time necessary to produce a print from a given negative by a given illumination; by the degree of contrast which can be obtained from the same negative by the surface texture, and by the colour of the paper base itself apart from the image. Thus we have "slow" and "rapid" papers, hard or contrasty, and soft, rough, smooth "platino matt," "satin," and glossy, these giving a range from rough drawing paper to a surface like glass. In many cases certain grades come into two or more of these classes. Thus we may have rough rapid, smooth rapid, hard cream and soft cream, and the same in white. In this great variety lies one of the principal advantages of bromide paper, for there is hardly a negative which is capable of being printed at all for which a paper which will give the best result cannot be found. Many printers use only one variety of paper, and trust to their skill in exposure and development to produce even results from all classes of negatives, but from experience I can assert that a very ordinary worker can produce a better result upon "hard" paper from a flat negative than an expert can upon the average kind. Therefore I advise every printer to have by him a small stock of special papers, so that he can at once select the quality necessary for exceptional densities of image. While not recommending this course to he carried too far and to encumber one self with too many kinds, I would point out the influence of colour and surface in certain cases. Suppose that we have a hard, chalky negative; we can use for this a "cream crayon soft" paper. This not only reduces the contrast of the image but tones down the glare of the whites, while the slightly rough texture gives further aid me direction. With a very soft negative we may choose a satin surface paper, that is, one with a semi-gloss, which gives a richness to the shadows. A full gloss paper would be even better, but for high-class -work a glossy surface is rarely acceptable. Further modification may be obtained by toning the image to a sepia colour, a course generally advisable with harsh contrasts, as brown and white usually gives a softer result than black and white when both print are of the tame quality. I strongly the practice of toning bromides irrespective of quality; every day thousands of prints which are of fatrly good quality in black and white are spoiled by being converted into poor, flat, rusty sepias. If I have the slightest doubt as to the resulting tone of a print I would- leave it in black and white, and if the order were for sepia prints I would ask permission to submit a black and white print when sending the proofs.
           Gaslight papers closely resemble bromide in the points I hare already mentioned, so that it is not necessary to deal with them at length. I should like, however, to say that besides the "contrasty" qualities which are most used, are special kinds which, though very slow in action, walls give splendid results from dense negatives. These papers require a very strong light for printing, several fifty-candle-power lamps being needed in the printing boxes.
           Gelatino-chloride or P.O.P. was not o long ago almost universally used for portrait work, but is now little in favour, especially among the cheaper class of studios. A few good class firms still find that the warm tones so easily obtained upon it are acceptable to their patrons, and wisely adhere to it. Certain warm browns and reddish tints closely approach the delicacy of carbon, and will always be popular, but the purple black tones are now quite out of fashion, P.O.P. requires much greater cart- and cleanliness in working than bromide, which may account for the latter superseding it.
           Self-toning papers, which are mostly collodio-chloride, possess many advantages, although they are the slowest of the printing out sort. This defect may be largely overcome by employing an enclosed arc for printing, when the time in much shortened. A great range of tones from warm sepia to a blue-grey may be obtained by variation of the strength of the hypo bath and for the grays a preliminary soaking in a solution of common salt. Matt and glossy surfaces and white and cream bases are available in this class of papers. A variation of tone may be obtained by using a platinum toning bath as employed in the doable toning of ordinary collodio-chloride paper. I hare used much of this paper, and find that the prints stand very well. Some, which are fifteen or sixteen years old, seem quite fresh. Self-toning gelatino-chloride is also made, but I have not found so good a range of colours with them as with the collodion. Moreover, they cannot be dried by heat, as the latter can. Some few photographers have used what is termed salted paper for large work. This has to be prepared at home by coating drawing paper with a solution of chloride of ammonium or even common salt, and floating upon a bath of nitrate of silver. The prints may be fixed without toning, or they may be toned in any of the gold baths used for P.O.P. Strong negatives are required, as the image is inclined to be rather dull as compared with that on an emulsion paper. The surface is very agreeable, and with suitable subjects the results are highly artistic. Platinum printing like carbon stands in a category of its own, and occupies the first place with those photographers who put quality before cost. It is, next to ferro-prussiate, the simplest of all printing processes, and is not only pleasing but permanent; it is actually a "thing of beauty and a joy for ever." Platinum papers can be obtained in rough and smooth surfaces, end on white and cream bases. As there is no practically useful method of toning, special papers and solutions are prepared for black and sepia prints respectively. One important quality of platinum prints is their absolute flatness when finished; as there is no coating either of gelatine or collodion there is no risk of curling, and if attached by one edge to a mount they will lie close to it no matter what the condition of the atmosphere may be. It should be clearly understood that the word "platino," when applied to bromide paper, refers to nothing but the appearance of the surface. There is no platinum in the coating, and the image is no more permanent than that on ordinary bromide papers. Carbon printing is unique as regards the great variety of colour and surface in which prints may be produced. Although in portraiture only two or three are commonly used, such as sepia, red chalk, and warm black, at least fifty varieties of colour, including reds, blues, greens, browns, grays, and many others, and a score of different weights and surfaces in the transfer papers are regularly supplied. So that it is possible to make carbon prints which closely resemble those by any other photographic process; and, needless to say, all are absolutely permanent. It is worth noting that, in spite of war restrictions, the price of carbon materials has shown but little increase in price. Many are deterred from attempting carbon printing by the idea that it is very difficult, but this is not the case if ready sensitized tissue be used, and if the work be carried out systematically it is little more troublesome than P.O.P., and the extra price obtainable will amply justify the additional work.
           I have carefully abstained from giving working details of any process, us this has been done over and over again, out in case of any difficulty, any desired information will be given through the usual "Answers to Correspondents" column. My object has been to point out what materials photographers have to hand for the production of such prints as may be needed for any claw of business.

PRACTICUS.